Policymakers and reformers seeking changes in classroom practices seldom recognize or acknowledge the following points I will make in the next two posts.
The canard that teachers resist change and use the same old arsenal of techniques year in and out often comes from reformers and policymakers who press visions of classroom that they believe should happen in lessons (e.g., "personalized learning," new math and science standards, project based learning, and "discovery" lessons) and end up seeing adaptations and bastardized versions of innovations that disappoint both designers and champions (see here and here).
To the first point that historically teachers have altered their daily practices, first-hand accounts by teachers, histories of teaching over the past century, and journalist accounts record such changes (see here , here, and here). For the latter two points I offer one unnoticed example of a classroom technique that many teachers have voluntarily added to their repertoire of practices over the past four decades: the interactive student notebook (ISN)
Part 1 of this two-part post describes what the ISN is and one version originating in the early 1970s in a Northern California high school social studies department.
Part 2 reports on the slow but steady spread of ISN across other academic subjects and its advance into middle and elementary schools. Closer to quiet ripples from a dropped coin in a pool than highly touted innovations entering a district complete with strobe lights, a bass beat, and lots of testimonials from selected teachers and administrators, many teachers over time have quietly and without fuss integrated ISNs (including digital versions) into their daily mix of whole group, small group, and independent activities.
What are interactive student notebooks? Today, there are many versions of spiral-bound ISNs in use across the country. Over the past four decades, teachers in thousands of elementary and secondary classrooms and across academic subjects have put into practice the concept and use of the ISN. When I entered "interactive student notebook" in a Google search box, I got over five million hits (August 27, 2017).
No teacher that I know of, however, has taken out a patent on a specific design of this teaching tool. While there is great variation in how teachers use ISNs in their classrooms (see here, here, and here), there are common features to ISNs that I will illustrate below. The over-riding purpose of ISNs is to have students organize information and concepts coming from the teacher, text, and software and creatively record all of it within a spiral notebook in order to analyze and understand at a deeper level what the information means and its applications to life.
Early advocates of ISNs were enamored with research findings on learning styles, multiple intelligences, and neuroscience about right brain/left brain differences (logical and analytic vs. creative). But as cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists came to find in succeeding years it was not either/or but both/and (see here and here). Myths or not, these research findings resonated with many teachers looking for a practical way for their students to organize and thoughtfully process information from teacher lectures, textbooks, and other instructional materials.
In an ISN, students write on the right-hand page of a notebook with different colored pens and pencils information gotten from teacher lectures, textbooks, videos, readings, photos, and software. What is written could be the familiar notes taken from a teacher lecture or the requirements of doing a book report or the steps taken when scientists inquire into questions. These facts and concepts can be illustrated or simply jotted down.
The left-hand page is for the student to draw a picture, compose a song, make a cartoon, write a poem, or simply record emotions about the content they recorded on the right-hand page.
The ISN combines familiar information processing with opportunities for students to be creative in not only grasping facts and concepts but also by inventing and imagining other representations of the ideas. Both pages come into play (the following illustrations come from teachers and their students' ISNs that have been posted on the web.
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A student studying pre-Civil War politics over slavery put this on the right-hand page.
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A student taking science put this on the right-hand page.
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And for the left-hand side, a student studying North American explorers did this one:
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For science, one student made this for the left page.
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And another student drawing and diagram for the road to colonial independence in America on the left-hand side looked like this:
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Origins of ISNs
To the best of my knowledge, ISNs began with teachers experimenting about how best to help students understand content, grasp skills (especially critical thinking ones), and simultaneously be creative in learning both. In their classrooms, they relied upon teacher-centered instruction (e.g., lectures, discussions, homework, textbooks, and periodic tests).
While there may be other teachers who came up with the idea and developed it for their classes, one teacher in particular I do know embarked on such a journey and produced a interactive student notebook for his classes. Meet Lee Swenson.
A rural Minnesotan who graduated from Philips Exeter Academy and then Stanford University (with a major in history), Swenson went on to get his masters and teaching credential in a one-year program at Stanford. He applied and got his first (and only) social studies position in 1967 at Aragon High School in San Mateo (CA). Swenson retired from Aragon in 2005.
Beginning in the mid-1970s and extending through the 1980s, Swenson, an avid reader of both research and practice, tried out different ways of getting students to take notes on lectures and discussion, and write coherent, crisp essays for his World Study and U.S. history classes. He worked closely with his department chair Don Hill in coming up with ways that students could better organize and remember information that they got from lectures, textbooks, other readings, and films and portray that information in thoughtful, creative ways in their notebooks. They wanted to combine the verbal with the visual in ways that students would find helpful while encouraging students to be creative. Better student writing was part of their motivation in helping students organize and display what they have learned. Swenson and Hill took Bay Area Writing Project seminars. Swenson made presentations on helping students write through pre-writing exercises, using metaphors, and other techniques. It was a slow, zig-zag course in developing the ISN with many cul-de-sacs and stumbles.*
Both he and Don Hill began trying out in their history classes early renditions of what would eventually become ISNs by the late-1980s. In each version of ISN's Swenson learned from errors he made, student suggestions, and comments from Hill and other teachers in the social studies and English departments in the school. Swenson made presentations at Aragon to science, English, and other departments, schools in the district, and social studies conferences in California and elsewhere.
By the mid-1990s, Swenson had developed a simplified model ISN that he and a small group of teachers inside and outside the district were using. The model continued to be a work in progress as teachers tweaked and adapted the ISN to their settings. By the end of that decade, a teacher at Aragon that Swenson knew joined a group of teachers at the Teacher Curriculum Institute who were creating a new history textbook. Teachers Bert Bower and Jim Lobdell, founders of TCI, were heavily influenced by the work of Stanford University sociologist Elizabeth Cohen on small group collaboration and Harvard University's cognitive psychologist Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences. They wanted a new history text that would have powerful teaching strategies that called for student-teacher interactions. They hired that Aragon teacher who had worked with Swenson to join them; the teacher introduced them to the ISN that was in full bloom within Aragon's social studies department. They saw the technique fitting closely to the framework they wanted in their new history textbook. TCI contacted Swenson and he became a co-author with Bower and Lobdell for the first and second editions of History Alive (1994 and 1998).
By 2017, TCI had online and print social studies (and science) textbooks for elementary, middle, and high school classrooms. One of the many features of the social studies books was "[T]he Interactive Student Notebook [that] challenges students with writing and drawing activities." On their website, TCI asserts that their materials are in 5,000 school districts (there are 13,000-plus in the nation), 50, 000 schools (there are over 100,000 schools in the U.S.), 200,000 teachers (over 3.5 million in the country), and 4.5 million students (U.S. schools have over 50 million students).
From teacher Lee Swenson and colleagues' slow unfolding of the idea of an interactive student notebook in the 1970s in one high school, the idea and practice of ISNs has spread and has taken hold as a technique that tens of thousands of teachers across the country include in their repertoire. Classroom policymaking from the bottom up, not the top-down.
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*Lee Swenson and I have known each other since the mid-1980s. As a teacher at Aragon, he attended workshops sponsored by the Stanford/Schools Collaborative in those years. In 1990. Swenson and I began team-teaching a social studies curriculum and instruction course in Stanford University's Secondary Teacher Education Program. We taught that course together for a decade. Since then we have stayed in touch through lunches, dinners, long conversations on bike rides, and occasional glasses of wine. He has shared his experiences and written materials in how he and Don Hill developed ISNs for their courses.
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- 28/08/2017 18h08
- São Paulo
Ludmilla Souza – Repórter da Agência Brasil
O Sindicato das Mantenedoras de Ensino Superior (Semesp) lançou hoje (28), em São Paulo, estudo que mostra um quadro detalhado da educação superior no país. Segundo o Mapa do Ensino Superior no Brasil 2017, aumentou a proporção de alunos concluintes no ensino superior privado nas faixas de renda inferiores a três salários mínimos e de jovens pertencentes as classes C e D na comparação com o estudo anterior.
O aumento do número de formandos chegou a 4,7 pontos percentuais na faixa com renda familiar de até 1,5 salário mínimo, ou seja, 13,5% dos formados, e de 3,4 pontos percentuais na faixa entre 1,5 e 3 salários mínimos, o que representa 26,8%, a maior parcela dos concluintes do ensino superior.
“A ampliação da oferta pela rede privada e os programas sociais, principalmente o Fies [Fundo de Financiamento Estudantil], trouxe realmente uma classe nova, que é a classe C, para dentro do ensino superior, e você já tem os primeiros reflexos, quando os dados de 2013, 2014 e 2015”, destaca o diretor executivo do Semesp, Rodrigo Capelato. Para ele, o crescimento econômico do início da década também foi um fator determinante. “Junto a isso, a economia vinha num crescente, e a classe C, em ascendência, de forma que essas pessoas começaram a ingressar no ensino superior”.
O aumento do número de formandos chegou a 4,7 pontos percentuais na faixa com renda familiar de até 1,5 salário mínimo, ou seja, 13,5% dos formados, e de 3,4 pontos percentuais na faixa entre 1,5 e 3 salários mínimos, o que representa 26,8%, a maior parcela dos concluintes do ensino superior.
“A ampliação da oferta pela rede privada e os programas sociais, principalmente o Fies [Fundo de Financiamento Estudantil], trouxe realmente uma classe nova, que é a classe C, para dentro do ensino superior, e você já tem os primeiros reflexos, quando os dados de 2013, 2014 e 2015”, destaca o diretor executivo do Semesp, Rodrigo Capelato. Para ele, o crescimento econômico do início da década também foi um fator determinante. “Junto a isso, a economia vinha num crescente, e a classe C, em ascendência, de forma que essas pessoas começaram a ingressar no ensino superior”.
O mapa também mostra que o número total de concluintes de cursos presenciais no Brasil aumentou de 9,3% de 2014 a 2015 (eram 841 mil e passaram a 919 mil em 2015), e o número total de concluintes nos cursos a distância cresceu 23% de 2014 a 2015 (eram 190 mil e passaram a 234 mil).
Desenvolvido desde 2011, o Mapa do Ensino Superior no Brasil 2017 retrata fielmente o panorama do ensino superior brasileiro em 2015 (período mais recente disponível), comparando os dados estatísticos com os da edição anterior.
O estudo revela ainda que os cursos mais procurados pelos estudantes, por faixa etária, nas instituições de ensino superior privado no Brasil em 2015 foram os presenciais de direito (765 mil matrículas), administração (506 mil) e engenharia civil (300 mil). No mesmo período, se for considerada a faixa etária até 24 anos, os mais procurados foram direito, administração e engenharia civil. Já na faixa etária de 25 a 44 anos, os cursos presenciais mais buscados foram direito, administração e enfermagem e, na faixa etária acima de 45 anos, os preferidos foram direito, pedagogia e psicologia.
Nos cursos presenciais, a maioria dos alunos matriculados (52,3%) está na faixa etária de 19 a 24 anos – na rede pública, o percentual é de 57,8% e, na rede privada, de 50,1%. A faixa de 25 a 29 anos também contempla um número considerável de alunos, chegando a 20%.
A evolução das matrículas nos cursos de nível superior a distância registrou, de 2009 a 2015, crescimento de 66%, com aumento de 90% na rede privada e uma queda de 26% na rede pública. No período de 2014 a 2015, o crescimento na rede privada chegou a 5,2% (1,20 milhão de matrículas para 1,26 milhão). Já na rede pública ocorreu uma queda de 7,9% nas matrículas (eram 139 mil em 2014 e reduziram para 128 mil em 2015).
O diretor executivo do Semesp considera restritivo o acesso o acesso à universidade pública gratuita. “Além das pouquíssimas vagas, só conseguem concorrer aqueles que estudaram nas melhores escolas no ensino básico, ou seja, no ensino particular. Isso é contraditório, quer dizer que aqueles que estudaram em escola particular no ensino básico conseguem acessar a universidade pública gratuita e aqueles que estudaram no ensino público acabam tendo que frequentar a faculdade paga”, lamenta Capelato.
Empregabilidade
Segundo o estudo, a empregabilidade está aumentando entre os que têm ensino superior completo. De 2014 a 2015, os postos de trabalho para quem tem curso superior cresceram 1,5%, chegando a 9,7 milhões de empregos em 2015. No ensino médio, o crescimento chegou a apenas 1% e, no ensino fundamental, houve uma queda de 3% na empregabilidade.
Para Capelato, quem tem um diploma de ensino superior nas mãos tem mais chances no mercado de trabalho. “No momento de boom econômico, quem tem escolaridade superior é o que mais consegue emprego e aumento no salário. E, em momento de crise, é o que menos sofre com desemprego.”
De acordo com dados da Associação Brasileira de Estágios (Abres), em 2015, o número de estagiários no Brasil chegou a 1 milhão, sendo 260 mil com ensino médio completo ou ensino técnico completo e 740 mil, do nível superior. Segundo a associação, esse dado mostra que apenas 2,7% dos alunos matriculados no ensino médio e técnico fazem estágio. No ensino superior, o percentual chega a 9,2%. Conforme o levantamento, o maior número de vagas oferecidas é para estudantes de administração (16,8%), direito (7,3%), comunicação social (6,2%), informática (5,2%), engenharias (5,1%) e pedagogia (4,2%).
De acordo com dados da Associação Brasileira de Estágios (Abres), em 2015, o número de estagiários no Brasil chegou a 1 milhão, sendo 260 mil com ensino médio completo ou ensino técnico completo e 740 mil, do nível superior. Segundo a associação, esse dado mostra que apenas 2,7% dos alunos matriculados no ensino médio e técnico fazem estágio. No ensino superior, o percentual chega a 9,2%. Conforme o levantamento, o maior número de vagas oferecidas é para estudantes de administração (16,8%), direito (7,3%), comunicação social (6,2%), informática (5,2%), engenharias (5,1%) e pedagogia (4,2%).
Em 2016, a média geral da remuneração paga a um estagiário brasileiro ficou em R$ 965. Para quem está no ensino médio, R$ 606; no médio técnico, R$ 762; no superior, R$ 1,1 mil; e no superior tecnológico, R$ 998. Já a remuneração média total do trabalhador brasileiro em 2015 ficou em R$ 2,6 mil. A média de remuneração de quem tem ensino superior completo foi R$ 5,7 mil. Para quem tem ensino médio completo, a renda média chegou a R$ 1,9 mil e, para os que têm ensino fundamental completo, a R$ 1,6 mil.
Custo do diploma
Um dado mais recente do estudo mostrou que, no primeiro semestre deste ano, a média geral do valor das mensalidades ficou em R$ 898. No curso de medicina, a mensalidade média foi R$ 6,2 mil; no de odontologia, R$2,1; no de arquitetura e urbanismo, R$ 1,2 mil; e no de engenharia, R$ 1,1 mil. Entre os cursos mais procurados, o que teve a menor média de mensalidade foi pedagogia: R$ 621.
O Mapa do Ensino Superior, elaborado anualmente pela assessoria econômica do Semesp, apresenta um panorama da educação superior no país ao longo dos últimos 15 anos. O estudo abrange todos os estados brasileiros e é detalhado por mesorregião.
Edição: Nádia Franco







